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International Clearing Union (F3)<br />A set of international institutions proposed by KEYNES at BRETTON WOODS. The ICU was to be the world's banker by setting up a World Bank which would be able to make adjustments of exchange rates, as well as providing a Board for International Investment, a scheme of commodity controls and an International Economic Board. Keynes hoped that this new set of institutions would combat the evils of the TRADE CYCLE. Exchange rate stabilization was to be achieved by fixing each exchange rate in terms of a new international bank money, BANCOR, which would itself be fixed in terms of gold. CENTRAL BANKS WOuld keep their accounts with the ICU to settle outstanding balances at the par value of their currencies expressed in bancor. Ban- cor credit balances, with the approval of central banks in credit, would be used to finance debtor countries. Overdraft facilities would give countries time for adjustment Each country would have a 'quota', i.e. a maximum debit balance, equal to the sum of the country's exports and imports on the average of the three pre-war years. If the quota was exceeded by more than one-quarter, then the country would be entitled to devalue up to 5 per cent without the consent of the ICU If the quota was exceeded by more than one-half, then the ICU would require a stated devaluation, control of outward capital transactions and the surrender of a suitable percentage of gold or other liquid reserve assets. If the quota was exceeded by more than three-quarters, then a country could be declared in default and no longer entitled to draw on its account without the approval of the governing body of the ICU Thus, this proposal was a step towards a world central bank operating in an international currency.<br /><em>See also:</em> International Monetary Fund; World Bank
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Galbraith, john Kenneth, 1908- (B3)<br />A Canadian American liberal economist who has achieved astounding publishing success in his books on capitalism, the Great Depression, the affluent society and the industrial state. With a training in agriculture in Ontario and in agricultural economics at Berkeley, California, he has taught at Harvard University since 1949. His early work on industrial price rigidities and on price controls made use of his wartime experience as head of the Price Section of the US Office of Price Administration. In 1952, American Capitalism launched his career as a best-selling economic guru. His works contain strikingly novel analyses, e.g. of consumers' couNTERVAILING POWER to large oligopolists, of the contrast between private affluence and public squalor and of the managerial nature of modem capitalism. Outside the university, he was a leading adviser to President John F. Kennedy and his ambassador to India. Much of his writing has the broad sweep of an eighteenth-century economist who has espoused the mixed economy: this approach is not without its critics as modem economists are often irritated by his avoidance of the empirical testing of his theories. But it is greatly to his credit that one of his most thorough books is his late survey of economic thought in 1987.<br /><em>Reference</em><br />Galbraith, J.K. (1938) Modern Competition and Business Policy, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin; London: Hamish Hamilton.<br /> - (1952) American Capitalism: the Concept of Countervailing Power, London: Hamish Hamilton.<br /> - (1952) A Theory of Price Control, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<br /> -(1954) The Great Crash 1929, Boston: Houghton Mifflin; London: Hamish Hamilton.<br /> - (1958) The Affluent Society, London: Hamish Hamilton.<br /> - (1967) The New Industrial State, Boston: Houghton Mifflin; London: Hamish Hamilton.<br /> - (1973) Economics and the Public Purpose, Boston: Houghton Mifflin; London: Hamish Hamilton.<br /> - (1987) A History of Economics: The Past as Present, London: Hamish Hamilton.<br /> Reisman, D.A. (1980) Galbraith and Market Capitalism, New York: New York University Press.
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Soviet Material Product System (EO, P3) The distinctive system of NATIONAL INCOME accounting used in the USSR. Government services and many private services were excluded. This attitude to national income accounting, so different from that used by Western countries, is founded on the distinction between PRODUCTIVE and UNPRODUCTIVE LABOUR used by CLASSICAL ECONOMISTS.
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