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Old 06-17-2011, 01:42 AM   #1
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Default (一)美国农业政策的历史演化

    
    在20世纪30年代,面对资本主义经济大危机和寰球贸易保护主义的风行,美国对公民经济运前进行了 一系列行之有效的干涉,即所谓的“罗斯福新政”,其中包括对农业实施了强有力的政府支持,农业补贴政策开端 逐步构成。不外,此时农业补贴政策的主要目的在于,通过增加农业生产补贴和出口补贴(1933年,政府提供 的农业补贴为1.31亿美元),提升农业生产力,拓展国际市场,保障粮食安全,实檀越体是联邦政府。美国农 业补贴政策的雏形主要体当初1933年的《农业调剂法》中。到了1950年前后,全球农产品市场供过于求, 农产品价格大幅度下跌,此时,美国政府开始全面增加农业补贴。到了1970年前后,美国开始实施“目标价格 --价差补贴体系”,并在1977年通过 《粮食与农业法案》予以全面实施。尔后,美国的农业补贴政策每隔5年便根据国内形状势进行订正、弥补和完美 。迄今为止,有影响的农业补贴法案主要有:
    1.1985年农业法案--《农业安全法案》。20世纪80年代初期,由于美元升值和国际农产品市 场竞争加剧,美国农产品出口减少,农场主收入水平降低;与此同时,1980年农业法案已使得美国联邦政府财 政预算吃紧,因而,1985年农业法案不仅要斟酌到农场主的利益需要,而且要统筹政府的预算束缚。在此背景 之下通过的1985年《农业安全法案》计划五年内农业补贴资金总额为850亿美元,主要实施目标为:下降商 品贷款利率、解冻价差补贴、冻结补贴基础面积、激励和补贴土地休耕、扩大出口补贴,CartierWatches。其实施目的在于应用生产环节的制约和流通环节的补贴来晋升农产品价格水温和出口竞争力。
    2.1990年农业法案--《食物与农业贸易保护法案》。在1990年农业法案的造成过程中,关税 和贸易总协议(GATT)谈判主导了政府决策者的思维。此时政府的预算本钱和贸易谈判态度成为1990年农 业法案制定的两大主要制约因素。政策决策者的主要用意在于:降低总体补贴水平,并将农业补贴与农民的生产决 策分别,同时,发挥市场机制的调节作用。1990年农业法案的主要内容包括:1.在法案实施期间,维持固定 的目标价格。2.将农业贷款利率维持在1985年农业法案的水平上,并与全球农产品市场价格衔接。3.以8 5%的耕地面积作为政府价差补贴的基础,其余15%的耕地面积不能享受政府财政补贴,农民可以根据市场状态 自由调整生产结构和规模。4.自1994年开始,价差补贴的市场价格由原来的5个月市场平均价格改为12个 月市场平均价格。
    3.1995年农业法案--《联邦农业促进与改造法案》。1995年农业法案出台的现实背景主要有 :1996年美国举办大选,GATT谈判取得进展,美国农业国际竞争力增强,农业产出日益集中,全球经济增 长良好。经由一连串的讨价还价,农业法案终于在1996年4月实现并通过。其主要内容包括:1.目标价格- 价差补贴系统暂停实施(但并未完整取消),在2002年之前用固定补贴取代。2.实施“生产弹性合同”。3 .推行运销援助贷款。4.实施补贴上限,每个农场主的补贴上限为40000美元。5.推行长期资源保育计划 。
    4.2002年农业法案-《农业保险与农村投资法案》。在2002年农业法案的制定进程中,决议者 面临的经济背景主要是:美元贬值,国际农产品出产价格下跌,农场主农业收益降落,联邦政府估算呈现盈余,欧 盟、日本农业补贴程度进步(张陆彪,2002)。2002年5月,美国2002年农业法案正式生效,联邦政 府决议在1995年农业法案的基本上全面增添对农业的投资和补贴,方案在将来六年内农业财政支撑到达118 5亿美元(陈锡文、程国强,2003)。该法案的主要内容包括:实施直接补贴,扩展补贴品种,参加反周期补 贴,提高贷款利率,扩大种植弹性空间,提高补贴上限,推行出口和食粮援助规划,扩大资源保育面 积。
    从美国20世纪30年代以来农业补贴政策的演化轨迹来看,美国农业补贴政策大抵可以划分为三个不同 的阶段:1.价格补贴为主导的阶段(1933-1995年),此时,政府补贴直接与市场价格挂钩。2.收入补贴为主导的阶段(1996-2001年),此时,政府补贴与当年市场价格脱钩,直接计入农夫收入形成中。3.收入补贴与价格补贴并存阶 段(2002年至今),此时,政府补贴的种类和方式根据实际情况而定。
    
    (二)美国农业补贴政策的事实特点
    
    目前美国农业补贴政策的运行格局是以2002年农业法案为根本框架的。美国2002年农业法案认为 农场主“提供牢靠的收入平安网”为基础起点;与此相适应,在农产品补贴、资源保护、农产品商业增进、农业信 贷、农村发展、利研和技巧推广、作物保护等方面出台了一揽子支持政策。概而言之,美国农业补贴政策的运行现 状能够概括为以下多少个特色。
    1.在补贴数量上已经达到历史最高水平。根据美国农业部测算,在2002年农业法案生 效的2002-2007年期间,年均农业补贴支出大体为190亿-210亿美元;而按1995年农业法案,法定农业补贴年 均为133亿美元,2002年农业法案在此基础上农业补贴年均净增57亿-77亿美元。与此同时,因为农业 补贴存在压低国际农产品市场价格的滞后效应,按照美国农业补贴政策的运行机制,从久远看,美国联邦政府的农 业补贴实际支出还有增长的空间和可能。
    2.在补贴方式上以“黄箱”政策为主。就2002年农业法案的政策支出性质而言,生态保护、养分计 划、农村发展、森林保护、能源计划等项目属于不受WTO农业规则限制的“绿箱”政策;而商品计划、贸易支持 、信贷支持、农场保护等项目属于受WTO农业规则限制的“黄箱”政策。而且就2002年农业法案增加的补贴 数量而言,“黄箱”政策补贴的比重超过55%。“黄箱”政策补贴主要是通过销售贷款补贴、固定直接补贴、反 周期补贴三种政策工具,提供应种植小麦、玉米、大米、棉花、油料的农场主,从而构成了一张周密的收入安全保 护网。其中,反周期补贴是一种全新的补贴方式,其实质是提高农产品目标价格水平,增加农场主生产收益,加强 其国际市场竞争力。
    3.在补贴范畴上已经履盖了简直所有主要农产品。除了持续对传统的大米、小麦、玉米、棉花、高粱等 主要农产品进行补贴外,2002年农业法案又把大豆、油料、花生等产品纳入固定直接补贴和反周期补贴的范围 ;把羊毛、蜂蜜、杂豆等产品纳入销售贷款补贴的范围;而且把本来不享受补贴的生果、蔬菜、乳制品、食糖等产 品也纳入补贴和保护的规模。这在美国农业发展史上是素来不过的。
    4.在补贴分配上相对集中在主要农产品和大农场主上。在2002年农业法案中,尽管有十大项目,但 以主要农产品为补贴对象的商品计划补贴就占补贴总量的50%,生态保护补贴占补贴总量的30%.从补贴种类 上看,尽管扩大了补贴范围,但补贴依然主要集中在粮食、油料、豆类、乳制品等少数农产品上。从收益主体来看 ,由于各种补贴与农产品的生产面积和产量直接挂钩,巨额的农业补贴主要流向少数大规模农场。据美国农业部初 步估量,2000年,美国大农场约占农场总数的8%,却得到了47%的政府农业补贴;而按照2002年农业 法案的补贴方式,占美国农场总数30%左右的较大规模农场将取得政府补贴总量的75%(Harvey,20 04)。
    
    二、政策工具与政策绩效
    
    (一)美国农业补贴的政策工具
    
    在美国70多年的农业补贴政策实施过程中,根据农业自身发展的请求、国内国际市场行情、政治因素的 变动,美国政府采用了多样化的补贴工具和手腕,树立了一个完全、系统的农业补贴政策系统。概而言之,美国农 业补贴的政策工具主要有:
    1.货款差额补贴。这是1996年以前美国政府主要的农业补贴工具,即农业部事先确定一个目标价格 ,如果商品贷款利率高于目标价格或播种后全国均匀市场价格低于目标价格,其差额由政府支付给农民。所波及的 农产品主要是大批谷物产品。农民可以在种植前预先支取不超过50%的价格差额,等收成后多退少补。差额补贴 的本质是政府为农产品提供保护价格。1996年当前,这种政策工具被直接支付所代替。
    2.直吸收入补贴。这是一种与农产品的生产、价格不挂钩的固定补贴,jp tods,是政府从价格补贴转向收入补贴的主要标记。其实施过程是政府依照基期的补贴产量和补贴面积肯定补贴数量, 而不与当年的种植面积和市场价格挂钩。在此基础上,农夫自主决定种植面积和种植种类。
    3.反周期补贴。这是2002年农业法案提出的新补贴工具,它实际上是贷款差额补贴与直接受入补贴 彼此混杂的产物。实在施过程是:当时由农业部断定一个目标价格,假如市场价格加上直接支付高于目的价格,则 不启动反周期补贴,christian louboutin shoes for cheap;如果市场价格加上直接支付低于目标价格,政府就用反周期补贴来补充两者之间的差额。
    4.资源保育补贴.它始于1936年的《泥土维护与家庭分配法》,目前主要包含土地休耕补贴、农田 水土坚持补贴、湿地保护补贴、草地保育补贴等。另外,美国联邦政府还供给天然灾祸支援接济补贴,用于做作灾 难产生后的土地资源掩护。依据2002年农业法案,2002-2007年,政府将投入220亿美元实行农业资源保育打算。
    5.农产品贸易补贴.从国际农产品市场份额上看,美国小麦出口占世界市场的45%,大豆占34%, 玉米占22%,农产品出口额占美国农业销售总额的比重高达25%.因此,农产品出口对稳固美国国内农业生产 和提高农场主收益具备极其主要的作用。与此相适应,美国政府的农产品出口补贴以出口信贷和勉励市场进入为重 点,主要补贴名目是:1.出口信贷担保。它始于1982年,目前是美国最大的农产品出口支持项目,其主要功 效在于为美国农产品出口企业提供回款担保。2.新兴市场项目。它主要对有发展潜力的新兴市场给予回款担保和 贷款补贴,每年大致在10亿美元左右。3.市场进入项目。它主要用于开发、保持、拓展美国农产品的国际市场 ,特别是那些高附加值农产品的市场,每年大致在2亿美元左右。4.出口提高项目。它旨在对在国际农产品市场 上遭受不公平竞争的出口企业提供补贴,1996年为3.5亿美元,1998年为5亿美元,1999年为5. 9亿美元,2000年为5.79亿美元,2002年为4.78亿美元,目前每年保持在5亿美元左 右。
    
    (二)美国农业补贴政策的积极效应
    
    如何对待和评估美国的农业补贴政策,始终是全球关注的焦点;同时,美国农业补贴政策的后果和影响直 接决定着国际农产品市场的走势和WTO农业谈判的成败。如果美国长期保持高强度的农业补贴政策,则必定带来 如下积极效果:1.有利于提升美国农产品的市场价格上风。美国长期对于出口导向的农产品(主要是粮食作物) 给予大量补贴,其目的在于降低其价格和提高其竞争力。2000年,美国对小麦的直接补贴为每吨45美元(折 合成人民币为370元),对玉米的直接补贴为每吨27美元(折合成国民币为220元)。换句话说,美国的小 麦和玉米分离从政府补贴中失掉了370元/吨和220元/吨的降价空间,从而使美国农产品在国际市场上获得了比拟价格竞争优势(张桂林等,2003)。2.促进了美 国拓展农产品国际市场。目前,在国际农产品市场上,美国的小麦、玉米、大豆均占有较大的份额;2001年, 美国农产品出口额达到536亿美元,稳居世界第一(Murphy,1999)。而长期稳定的农业补贴必将有 力地提高美国拓展农产品国际市场的能力。3.有助于美国农业生产稳步发展。实施出口补贴可以解脱和转嫁农产 品过剩的危机,进而缓解农业生产与需求之间的抵触和矛盾;实施贷款差额补贴和反周期补贴,可以大大强化农场 主应答市场供求稳定的才能,从而有助于克制农业生产可能发生的激烈波动。4.有利于农业结构合理优化。美国 政府一方面通过多样化的限产补贴,对已经严峻多余的农产品进行强迫性或限制性的价格约束,从而减少和限制其 产量;另一方面又通过鼓励性补贴来刺激和支持市场缺乏农产品的生产,从而缓解供求矛盾,推进农业生产结构公 道化。5.有助于农业生产可持续发展。美国政府的多样化补贴不仅为农业生产发展创造了良好的宏观环境,而且 从基本上保证了农业生产主体的农业收益,从而扩大了农业生产的内部资本积聚,进而为农业科技的推广利用和农 业的扩大再生产创造了基本前提前提,终极促进农业生产持续、稳定发展。
    
    三、政策问题与发展走势
    
    (一)美国农业补贴政策的主要问题
    
    不可否定,美国的农业补贴政策总体上是胜利的,但在具体的政策运行过程中仍然存在着一些亟待研究和 解决的窘境和问题。
    1.加重政府财政累赘。20世纪90年代初期,美国农业财政支出大致在460亿美元左右,占美国联 邦政府预算支出的比重为3.7%;进入21世纪以来,农业补贴的急剧增加导致农业财政支出大大增加,200 0年达到757亿美元,占联邦政府预算支出的比重回升到4.2%(Ray et al.,2003);伴跟着美国2002年农业法案的实施,农业财政支出总量与所占比重将会进一步提高,从 而加大了联邦政府的财政压力。
    2.导致农业补贴的不良循环.一方面,大量的农业补贴可以刺激农业产出增加,从而有利于农业扩大再 生产;另一方面,由于农业补贴总是直接或间接地与种植面积和导致产量相连,农民为了获取更多的补贴总是尽可 能地扩大种植面积和提高产量,从而产生市场供给压力和导致生产价格下降,进而引发新一轮的市场价格与补贴保 护价格的差距扩大,最终导致农业补贴不断强化而难以自拔(Wise, 2004).
    3.引发国际贸易摩擦。美国的出口补贴和信贷支持使得农场主在国际市场上出卖农产品变得轻易和有利 可图;与此同时,其他国家的农民却得不到政府的相干政策支持。在此条件下,replicarolex,美国农产品向世界市场推销就成为可能。由于美国在国际农产品市场上的主体地位,美国农业政策的变动会对国 际农产品市场发生深远的影响。美国大量的农业补贴不仅可能进一步压低国际农产品市场价格,而且可能重大伤害 其他国家特别是发展中国家农民的利益。据初步测算,美国小麦、玉米、油料作物的产量每增加10%,国际市场 上小麦、玉米、油料作物的价格将分辨降低8%,13%,14%(IFPRI,2003)。
    4.不利于WTO农业会谈顺利进行。在WTO谈判过程中,美国农业补贴始终备受来自其他国家特殊是 发展中国家的压力。美国在WTO谈判中表演着双重角色。一方面,长期以来,美国致力于削减国际农产品贸易壁 垒,力求为其农产品创造更多的出口机遇;另一方面,美国在海内又向农场主提供巨额的农业补贴。尽管这些补贴 均在WTO农业规矩所容许的框架之内,但因为美国在国际贸易自在化谈判中的主导地位以及美国农产品在国际市 场上的主体位置,美国巨额的农业补贴可能侵害其在国际事务中的大众形象,进而引发其余国度仿效和新一轮贸易 保护主义仰头,挑衅己经存在的国际农产品贸易新秩序。
    5.补贴收益调配格式不公正和不均等。从实际情形来看,农业补贴收益重要集中在范围大的农场主手中 ,然而,这种高度集中的分配程度同时又是农业部分本身结构问题的产物。近年来,农业部门已经越来越与大型商 业企业紧密联合在一起了,而这些大型贸易企业发明的农业产出占美国年度农业总产出的44%。同时,农业补贴 分配在历史上就老是与产量跟农业工业构造严密相连,导致了美国农业补贴收益分配格局的倾斜和不平衡。实证研 讨表明,大量的补贴好处被不经营农场的土地所有者占领。1997年,55亿美元农业补贴总量中的13.8亿 美元被不经营农场的土地所有者据有,也就是说,25%的农业补贴利益成为政策“漏损”。“漏损”的数目和水 平主要取决于农业补助在租地农场主与土地所有者之间的分配比例。在美国,租地经营是一个很广泛的景象,20 01年,超过45%的农业耕地采取租地经营模式,租地经营者的租金支付方法主要是现金支付或者产品分成。这 样,美国农业补贴在多大程度上转换成土地高价钱和高房钱,不仅是政策制订者而且也是农场主高度关注的问题。 只管在美国良多农场主自身就是土地所有者,因此他们可能享受到应有的政府补贴利益,但同样值得关注的是,为 数不少的不经营农场的土地所有者也通过土地高价格和高租金获取了大批的农业补贴利益。
    
    (二)美国农业补贴政策的未来走向
    
    自1933年开始实施农业补贴以来,美国政府的详细农业补贴政策根据详细情况一直进行调整和完善, 按照通例,2007年将是美国农业补贴政策调整年。进入21世纪以来,为适应WTO农业谈判的须要,美国农 业补贴政策浮现出绝对清晰的发展趋势。
    1.从补贴程度的角度来看。尽管美国政府在WTO农业谈判中踊跃主意履行“零补贴计划”,提倡撤消 所有生产补贴和出口补贴,但在其国内农业补贴政策上却一直在强化其补贴总量和规模。2002年农业法案规定 ,在此后10年(2002-2011年)内美国政府用于农业的补贴将达1900亿美元,年均法定农业补贴在200亿美元左右,比199 5年农业法案的农业补贴增加了80%。随同着WTO农业谈判的艰巨进展,国际农产品市场的竞争将日趋剧烈; 与此同时,美国经济近年来保持了良好增加的态势,再加上美国大选和国内中小农场主利益渴求的双重压力,可以 预感,2007年美国农业补贴政策的修订必将以补贴程度的进一步强化为基础。
    2.从补贴方式的角度来看。美国的农业补贴逐步由以价格支持为主转向以收入支持为主。近年来,美国 在农业补贴政策上重视施展市场机制的导向作用,传统的以目标价格、保护价格、贷款差额支付为主的价格支持政 策,逐步转向以直接收入支付、反周期支付等为主的收入支持政策。与此相适应,联邦政府的补贴方式也由原来的 国内价格支持转换为对农民的直接收入补贴。之所以做出这种抉择,一方面是为了躲避WTO农业规则的限度和危 险,以获得发展中国家的懂得和支持,从而缓解和减轻来自发展中国家的压力;另一方面是由于传统的价格支持政 策存在许多政策破绽和政策缺陷,导致农业补贴政策绩效与农业宏观调控目标发生抵触和偏差。而收入支持政策的 实施可以在很大程度上打消这些政策缺点,从而实现农业补贴政策目标与政策绩效的有机祸合。
    3.从补贴环节的角度来看。美国在农业补贴中逐渐削减流畅范畴的补贴额度,减少旁边环节补贴,在此 基础上增加对农业综合开发和农民收入的政策支持力度。美国增加农业综合开发支持力度的主要目标在于减少对天 然资源的损坏性应用,保护生态环境并保护农业生产的良性循环。同时,增加补贴顶用于农业利研、教导和技术推 广的份额,目的在于用进步的科技来设备农业,进而提高农业生产效力。2002年农业法案划定, 在2002-2007年间,用于农业综合开发的补贴比1995年农业法案规定的补贴增加近190亿美元;用于资源环境保 护筹划的补贴到2007年要达到171亿美元;而用于农村发展计划的补贴也将达到10亿美元左右(Kirw an,2004)。这种补贴环节的改变必将有利于以生态农业、轮回农业、有机农业等为中心的古代农业的可连 续发展。
    4.从补贴工具的角度来看。美国农业补贴正在实现由“黄箱”政策向“绿箱”政策的转变。“黄箱”政 策是WTO农业规则限制和要求削减的政府支持政策,而“绿箱”政策是WTO农业规则许可并鼎力倡导的政府支 持政策。近年来,美国在逐步减少“黄箱”政策的基础上,充足利用“绿箱”政策来支持农业发展和增加农民收入 。从深远的视角动身,美国未来农业补贴政策的支稳重点主要在于:农业科技开发和技术推广、资源保育和结构调 整、农产品德量安全和监测、生态农业和环境保护、现代农业科技教育和农业保险、市场开发和农村 信息化服务。
  (中国乡村经济,曲阜师范大学经济学院,冯继康)   
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Old 06-17-2011, 02:10 AM   #2
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Reprinted from alumni of the user at 08:37 on July 16, 2010 Reading (loading. ..) Comments (0) Category: Personal Diary

1, Matthew; 2, watches theorem; 3, not worthy of law; 4, the Peter Principle; 5, zero-sum game theory; 6, Washington, co-laws; 7, wine and water law; 8, water barrels of law; 9, mushrooms management; 10, Occam's razor law; 11, twenty-eight law; 12, money.



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1, Matthew
When I come back, come see me. Report of the second servant, said: Report of the third servant, said: Shanggei the first servant, and said: Look around us, you can find many examples of Matthew. Friends and more people will get more frequent exchanges with friends; lack of friends who will always go alone. Especially with regard to money, even if the same rate of investment return, a 10 times more investment than others who have more than 10 times earnings.

This is a winner-take-all of society, use of Matthew, the winner is you.

on business development is concerned, Matthew tells us, in order to maintain our edge in one area, we must rapidly expand in this area. When you become a leader in the field, even though the same rate of investment return, you can more easily get more than their counterparts in small gains. And if one area does not expand rapidly in strength, we must constantly look for new areas of development, to ensure better returns.
2, watches, watch Theorem Theorem
refers to a person with a table, you can know what time it is, and when he has two tables not being able to determine. Two tables and can not tell a person more accurate time, but people will watch the exact time to lose confidence. You have to do is to select the more reliable one, try to calibrate it and use it as your standard, follow its guidelines. Remember the words of Nietzsche: Love, love your choice However, many people are troubled: they were , for the depressed life, and even made the subject of noteworthy achievements, but also never felt the joy of success.

watch Theorem in business management gives us a very intuitive inspiration, is the same person or with an organization's management can not use two different methods, can not set two different goals. And even each individual can not be two people to simultaneously command, otherwise this company or this person will know what to do. Theorem another layer of meaning within the meaning of the watch is that each one can also choose two different values, otherwise, your behavior will be disrupted.
3, not worth the Law of Law

not worth the most intuitive interpretation was: not worth doing, is not worth doing, this law seems simple enough, but its importance has always Shu been forgotten. Not worth the laws reflects a psychological, if a person is engaged in a self that is not worth doing, tend to remain cynical, half-hearted attitude. Not only the success rate is small, and even if successful, it will not feel much sense of accomplishment.

What things are there to do? In general, this depends on three factors.

1, values. Only thing consistent with our values, we will do it with enthusiasm.

2, personality and temperament. If a person do with his personality and temperament of a complete departure from the job, he is very difficult to do, such as what the person has become a good archivist, or a shy person has to deal with different people every day.

3, the reality of the situation. The same job, go do in different situations, to our feelings are different. For example,一部看了四年的动画 - Qzone日志, in a large company, if you initially do is run errands and do odd jobs of work, you probably think is not worth it, but once you were promoted to foreman or manager,new balance sneakers, you would not think of.

sum up, the job is worth doing: our values, our personality and temperament for, and allows us to see the expectations. If your work does not have these three factors, you should consider for a more appropriate work, and strive to do it.

Therefore, personally, should be available in a variety of goals and values of the selected one, and then strive for. And on a business or organization, will have a good personality characteristics of employees, a reasonable distribution of work, such as a strong desire for achievement alone or lead employees to accomplish a certain risk and difficulty of the work, and in its completion recognition and praise given time; to the staff attached to a strong desire to participate in more groups to a common work; to a strong desire for power with which the workers ability to adapt as a director. At the same time to strengthen the staff of the business goals of the identity, so that employees feel the work is worth it, so as to stimulate the enthusiasm of employees.
4,

Peter Principle Peter Principle is the American scholar Lawrence? Peter in the organization for promotion of related phenomena One of the findings after the study; in various tissues, as used in a class of qualified personnel on the promotion promotion, so employees always tend to be promoted to the status of their incompetence. Peter Principle, also known as This phenomenon is ubiquitous in real life: a competent university professor was promoted to president after the incompetence; an excellent athlete was promoted to director of sports officials, and doing nothing.

an organization, once a considerable part of the organization's staff was pushed to the level of their incompetence, the organization will result in overstaffing, inefficiency, resulting in mediocre to succeed, the development of stagnation. Therefore, it requires a simple change, To establish a scientific and reasonable mechanism for personnel selection and objective evaluation of every ability and level of staff will arrange to its capable staff positions. Do not post promotions as a reward for key workers should establish a more effective incentive mechanism, more to pay, vacation etc. as incentives. Sometimes an employee can not be promoted to a good play to their positions, not only is not as rewards, but so that workers can not be a good play, but also cause losses to the enterprise.

individuals, although we all look forward to keep a promotion, but do not climb as their sole motivation. Its not fully competent in a job managed to support, at a loss, not as good as its capability to find a position they can take their talent.
5, zero-sum game theory

when you see those two play chess, you can say they're playing Because in most cases, there is always a win, one lose, if we win counted as 1 point,new balance running shoes, and Shu Qi as -1 points, then this is the sum of two scores: 1 (-1) = 0.

This is the The reason why zero-sum game principle of broad interest, mainly because it was found in all aspects of society can be found with the From the individual to the country, from politics to economy, it seems that all the world is a huge validation of the This theory holds that the world is a closed system, wealth, resources, opportunities are limited, individuals, individual regions and individual countries necessarily means an increase in wealth for others, the plundering of other regions and countries, this is a

but in the 20th century experienced two world wars, the rapid economic growth, technological advances, globalization and the increasingly serious environmental pollution, the replaced. People began to realize that the Through effective cooperation, a happy ending is possible. But the situation can not occur, or their own ultimate disadvantage.
6, Washington, Washington
cooperation cooperative law is the law says: A man half-heartedly, two people passing the buck, three people were never brought to fruition the day. Somewhat similar to our Cooperation between people is not the simple addition of manpower, but much more complex and subtle. Cooperation from person to person, it is assumed the ability of each person is 1, then the result of cooperation of 10 individuals and sometimes much larger than 10, sometimes even smaller than 1. Because the animals were not static, but rather the energy of different directions, relative to naturally promote more effective, in conflict with each other is nothing. Our traditional management theory, for cooperative research was not much reflection is the most intuitive, most of the current management system and industry are working to reduce unnecessary human consumption, rather than using organization to improve people's performance. In other words, it may be said that management's main purpose is not the best for everyone,new new balance shoes, but to avoid excessive friction. 21st century will be a cooperative era, fortunately, more and more people have realized the importance of cooperation in good faith, are trying to learn cooperation.
; ; State Nepal Human law: a person can dig a hole for a minute, one second was 60 people can not dig a hole.

cooperation is a problem, how to cooperate is also a problem.
7, wine and water and sewage laws

liquor laws is that if a spoonful of wine into a bucket of water, you get a bucket of water; if a spoonful of sewage poured into a barrels of wine, or you get a bucket of water. In almost any organization, there is hard to get a few characters, the purpose of their existence seems to messed it up. Everywhere they sow discord, spread rumors to undermine the harmony within the organization. Worst of all, they like the fruit rotten apples in the box, if you do not in time, it will quickly transmitted to other Apple fruit box smash, force. An honest and competent people into a chaotic department may be swallowed, but only one non-German who can soon be turned into a mess of a highly efficient department. Organizational systems are often fragile, is built on mutual understanding, compromise and tolerance based on, it can easily be violated, was poisoned. Another important destroyer extraordinary ability to reason is easier to destroy than to build. A skilled craftsman to spend time carefully crafted ceramics, a donkey out of a second can be destroyed. If you have more craftsmen, nor how many decent work. If your organization has such a donkey, you should immediately rid of it; if you are unable to do so, you should put it tied up.
8, buckets and buckets law is the law of

speaking, a bucket can hold much water, it depends entirely on the shortest piece of wood. This means that any one organization could face a common problem, that constitute the various parts of the organization often determines the level of the entire organization.

form various parts of the organization are often missing the merits, and they often decide the inferior part of the organization level.

other parts of the worse, you can not throw them as bad apples. Strength is only relative, not eliminated. The problem is that you tolerate this kind of weakness to what extent. If it is a serious bottleneck to become an obstacle to work, to have some action.

If you are in an organization, you should:

1, make sure you are not the weakest part;

2, to avoid or reduce the vulnerability of your success impact;

3, if, unfortunately, you are at this link, you can take effective way to improve or change jobs to seek another job. 9, mushrooms, mushroom management is the management

many organizations who deal with a fledgling management, beginners are placed in a dark corner (not taken seriously in the department, or run errands and do odd jobs work), doused with a dung (unwarranted criticism,人参和黄芪运用差别 - Qzone日志, blaming, vicarious), left to its own devices (without the necessary guidance and guidance and help.) I believe many people have such a us closer to reality, more practical problems, while an organization, the general staff are treated equally budding, from the entry to the work will not be a big difference. No matter how talented you are, at the beginning of time can only start from the most simple things, So, how to efficiently through this period of life, from as far as possible lessons, mature, and establish a good image of a trustworthy individual, the society of every newly recruited young people must face.
10, Occam's razor Law

If you think that only bruised and battered, busy work only likely to succeed, then you are wrong.

things are always moving in the direction of complex, complex is wasteful, and the performance comes from simple. You may have done most of the things is meaningless, the real effective activities are just a small part, but they are often hidden in the complicated things. Find the critical part, remove redundant activities, success is not that complicated.

Occam's razor: if not necessary,new balance 574, not by entity.

12 century, the United Kingdom William of Ockham on the endless of the universality of those empty essentials are useless burden, should be ruthlessly He argues that This razor has made a lot of people feel threatened, is considered heresy, William himself hurt. However, this does not damage the knife's sharp, on the contrary, after several hundred years more and more rapidly, and already beyond the original narrow area and has a broad, rich and profound meaning.

law of Occam's razor in business management can be further deepened as the law of simple and complex: simple things become complicated, simple things become very complicated. This law requires that we deal with things, to grasp the main essence of things, grasp the mainstream to address the most fundamental problem. In particular, in harmony with nature, not to artificially complicate matters, in order to handle things.
11, twenty-eight law

your work done in 80% of the results, from 20% of your pay; while 80% of the pay, only in exchange for 20% of the results.

12, a question of money

when someone tells you:

according to the general argument that money is the measure of value, medium of exchange, store of wealth. But this argument ignores the other side of it, it is fascinating, it is crazy, exciting side,new balance shoes, but also the psychological aside the love of money aside.

on the nature of money, role and merits and demerits, throughout history,Never forget - Qzone log, many brilliant people have left a profound and witty sayings. We often see people excited for the money, make money, with the wealth of provocative images of themselves. Money on the world order and the impact of our lives is enormous, extensive, and sometimes this effect is a potential,new balance mens, we are often not so great and its role, however, is wonderful: it is entirely created by man himself . Wealth is not the driving force originated in the biological needs of any animal life, can not find the same phenomenon. It can not comply with the basic objective, can not meet the basic needs of ... ...

Indeed, the However, this seems aimless driving force is the most powerful force of mankind, human beings to hurt each other for money, far more than other reasons.
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